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>Contents of Subjects

 

FIRST YEAR

CSC101 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Acad Unit:  4
Pre-requisite:   Nil 

Levels of Abstraction
Introduction: computer systems and systems software in their historical context. Hardware: brief overview of computer architecture including CPU, peripherals, memory, instruction sets. Operating systems: managing resources, processes, peripherals, memory and file system. Networks: nature and role of communications networks (e.g. LAN, WAN), overview of the software and associated protocols used for distributed services. Middleware: overview of the networked services that support distributed applications. Applications: introduction to various popular applications (e.g. Databases). 

Languages, Tools and Architectures
System Software: programming languages and tools for the design of software applications, alternative approaches (e.g. compilers and interpreters), scripting languages. Software Architectures: client-server, component based, OO frameworks, remote procedure call, pipes and filters, plug-and-play. World Wide Web: search engines, web languages (e.g. HTML, XML, etc.), web page design and web services. Grid Computing: overview of architectures for secure, coordinated sharing of geographically distributed resources (e.g. OGSA).

CSC102 INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING 

Acad Unit:  4
Pre-requisite:   Nil

Basic concepts of programming in Java: basic data types, statements, control constructs (selections, repetitions, methods [activation, parameter passing, variable scopes]); Introduction to object-oriented programming: classes, objects, object composition, arrays, strings, class design guidelines, modularity, reusability, ease of maintenance and good programming practices; File I/O; Exception handling. 

CSC103 FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS

Acad Unit:  4
Pre-requisite:   Nil

Calculus: Limits and continuity, Derivatives, Integration, Ordinary differential equations. Linear algebra: Complex numbers, vectors, matrices, systems of linear equations. Probability and statistics: Summarizing data, probability theory, random variables and distributions, estimation theory, random processes.

CSC104 LOGIC DESIGN

Acad Unit:  4
Pre-requisite:  Nil

Numbers and codes: binary, octal, hexadecimal, floating-point numbers, BCD, excess-3, gray, alphanumeric codes, Logic gates and Boolean algebra: truth tables, Boolean theorems, logic gates, Combinational logic circuits: S-O-P and P-O-S forms, minimisation methods. Flip-flops and related devices: basic latches, clocked flip-flops, timing consideration, monostable and astable multivibrators, Schmitt-trigger. Counters and registers: asynchronous counters, decoding and glitches, shift-registers, BCD counters, data registers. Digital arithmetic: signed numbers, arithmetic operations, BCD addition.

CSC105 DATA STRUCTURES AND OBJECT-ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 

Acad Unit:  4
Pre-requisite:  CSC102 / CM102 & G168 / CM101 & CM102

Object-oriented programming fundamentals: inheritance, class hierarchies, polymorphism, abstract and interface classes; Principles of object-oriented programming: encapsulation and information hiding, separation of behavior and implementation, interface and implementation; Recursion; Abstract data types; Basic data structures: reference variables, dynamic memory allocation, vectors, lists, container/collection classes and iterators, stacks, queues; Trees: binary trees, binary search trees, tree traversals; Graphs: representations, graph traversal (DFS, BFS).

CSC106 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

Acad Unit:  4
Pre-requisite:  Nil

Sets, operations on sets, Cartesian products, power sets. Elementary number theory: modulo arithmetic. Mathematical Logic: propositional logic, predicate logic. Proof techniques, mathematical induction. Recursion. Functions: definition of functions, bijective functions, composite functions. Relations: properties of relations, equivalence relations, composite relations, partial ordering, total ordering. Introduction to graph theory: simple graphs, complete graphs, isomorphism, weighted graphs, paths, circuits. Counting techniques.

CSC110  C LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY*

Acad Unit:  2
Pre-requisite:  CSC102

C program format; Comparison of Java and C: data constructs, control constructs, storage classes(automatic, static and extern variables), simple I/O and file I/O; Pointers: pointer types, pointer operations, array and pointers, dynamic memory allocation, functions and argument passing; The C preprocessor and the #define, #include directives.

* on-line course with on-line assignments and tests


SECOND YEAR

CSC201 MICROPROCESSOR PROGRAMMING

Acad Unit: 4
Pre-requisite: Nil

Overall Structure of a 16/32-bit microprocessor; programming model; data types and representation; Memory organization. Assembly Language Programming for the H8S processor: Software development tools; Basic assembly language structure; Addressing modes; Stack manipulation; Instruction set; Modular programming; Structured programming. Embedded C programming; Memory Systems: Memory terminologies, technologies and characteristics, memory hierarchy. Exception Handling and Programming: Types of exception; exception vector table; stacks and its role in exception processing; Interrupts and Interrupt service routines; Interrupt priority. Basic I/O and I/O Programming: I/O organization and structure, I/O ports and their configuration; serial interface; Polling techniques; interrupt-driven I/O.

CSC202 ALGORITHMS 

Acad Unit:  4
Pre-requisite:  CS105, CS106

Algorithm Analysis: growth of functions, Big-oh notation, basic recurrences. Elementary sorting methods: Insertion, Selection, Heapsort, Quicksort, Radix Sort, Mergesort. Searching techniques: Elementary searching methods: Binary search, Hashing. Graph algorithms: Traversal algorithms, Greedy algorithms for Shortest Path & Minimum Spanning tress. Backtracking algorithms: N-Queens, Maze search. String matching algorithms. Dynamic programming. Introduction to NP-Completeness.

CSC203 SOFTWARE SYSTEMS AND MODELS 

Acad Unit:  4
Pre-requisite:  CSC105

Concurrency Models: basic concepts and notations, active and passive objects; Event Driven Programming: callbacks and event-handling methods, event propagation, exception handling, modeling of dynamic behavior, concurrent event-driven programming; GUI Development: Java event model, basic Java GUI classes, AWT and Swing, model-view-controller architecture; Concurrent Programming: processes and threads, FSP & LTS, mutual exclusion, condition synchronization; Mechanisms for Process Interaction: overview of mechanisms, shared memory approaches, message passing approaches, concurrent architectures; Analysis of Properties: deadlock, safety and liveness properties, starvation, dining philosophers, readers and writers.

CSC204 COMPUTER GRAPHICS & APPLICATIONS 

Acad Unit:  4
Pre-requisite:  CS102

Basics of Computer Graphics: Introduction, Graphics Pipeline and Coordinate Systems, Introduction to Ray Tracing, Shapes, 2D Transformations and viewing, 3D Transformations, 3D Viewing, OpenGL, Illumination and Shading. Computer Graphics Applications: Computer Animation, Physically-based Modelling, Real-time Rendering, Graphical User Interfaces, Virtual Reality.

CSC205 OPERATING SYSTEMS 

Acad Unit:  4
Pre-requisite:  CSC203 

Basic concepts: structures, services, shell user view vs. system calls, evolution of operating systems. Process management: notion of process and its states, interrupts and context switch, threads vs. processes, interprocess communication and synchronisation, deadlocks, scheduling. Memory management: storage organisations, storage placement strategies, VM implementation, page replacement algorithms. I/O systems: device-independent interface, disk, clock, and terminals drivers, disk scheduling policies. File systems: file system structure, file management, file allocation, file reliability. Security and protection: specific and general protection schemes, access control list, capabilities, encryption. Case Study on Unix and Windows NT.

CSC206 DATABASE SYSTEMS

Acad Unit:  4
Pre-requisite:  CSC202

Database models. Access methods and file systems. Relational database systems design. Query processing: Relational algebra, SQL. Introduction to transaction processing. Database security and integrity. Trends in database systems.

CSC207 SOFTWARE ENGINEERING 1

Acad Unit: 4
Pre-requisite: CSC102

Introduction: role of software engineering, the product. Software process models: the linear sequential model, the prototyping model, the RAD model, the evolutionary models the component-based development model, the formal methods model. Function-oriented Methodology for analysis and design: system engineering, analysis concepts and principles, analysis modeling, design concepts and principles, architectural design, user interface design, component level design, requirement analysis and design modeling tools. Object-oriented methodology for analysis and design: object-oriented analysis, object-oriented design. APIs: API packages, API programming, class browsers and related tools, debugging in the API environment. Programming environments. Web-based Engineering.

CSC279 COMPUTING INNOVATION AND DESIGN

Acad Unit: 4
Pre-requisite: Carried out with CSC207 Software Engineering I.

The Computing Innovation and Design (CID) emphasises practical aspects of analysis, design and construction, testing and reliability. The work undertaken reinforces theories, concepts and issues introduced in formal lectures through team-based implementation of a project that integrates both hardware and software-related exercises.


THIRD YEAR

CSC301 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Acad Unit:  4
Pre-requisite:   CSC102 

Role of programming language in Software Development. Describing syntax and semantics. Language translation. Virtual machine. Data and control abstractions. Data types. Type checking. Scoping. Exception handling. Concurrency. Comparison of language paradigms: Object-Oriented, Functional and Logic Programming. Program correctness. Programming in the large.

CSC302 NET-CENTRIC COMPUTING

Acad Unit:  4
Pre-requisite:   CSC205

Communication and Networking: Basic concepts of networking, circuit switching and packet switching, 7-layer ISO model, TCP/IP, connection oriented and connectionless paradigms, physical layer, data link layer, network layer and transport layer services; Network Architectures: Local area networks, wide area networks, Internetworking devices: repeaters, routers, bridges, gateways, wireless networks. Client-server computing and web technologies: Web Technologies, Characteristics of web servers and clients, stateless and stateful client-server interactions, web protocols, web-site creation and management, developing internet information servers, publishing information and applications Building web applications: Protocols in the application layer, principles of web engineering, database driven web sites, remote procedure calls, distributed lightweight objects, the role of middleware, support tools, security issues in distributed object systems, enterprise-wide web-based applications. Network Management: Security issues, security protocols and infrastructure, authentication mechanisms, QOS issues, capacity planning and performance issues, performance evaluation, basic queuing analysis.

CSC303 SOFTWARE ENGINEERING 2 

Acad Unit:  4
Pre-requisite:   CSC207 

Project Management: project planning, measurement and metrics, cost estimation. Scheduling and tracking, team management, risk analysis, project management tools and techniques.   Software Quality Assurance: factors and components. Maintenance: software configuration management, version and change control, documentation. Legacy systems and reverse engineering. Validation and Testing: Strategies and Implementation. Testing tools and plans. Object-oriented testing. Formal verification techniques and introduction to Formal Specification Languages. Capability Maturity Model (CMM) and other standards.

CSC304 AI AND INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS 

Acad Unit:   4
Pre-requisite:   CSC202

Foundations of AI, Intelligent Systems/Agents, Problem Solving Techniques, Knowledge Representation, Logical Reasoning, Planning and Decision systems, Machine Learning, Approximate Reasoning, Real-World AI.

CSC379 INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT 

Acad Unit: 10
Pre-requisite:

For students admitted to Year 1:
Year 3 standing and have completed at least 4 semesters of study

For Poly direct entry to second year students:
Year 3 standing and have completed at least 2 semesters of study

The 22 weeks Industrial Attachment aims to extend the knowledge gained throughout the academic course, and to develop skills needed to work in an industrial environment. As computer technology applications are carried out in environments where production, engineering and management problems exist, the student will be able to gain first-hand experience applying knowledge in such an industrial situation. There is also an opportunity to develop the social, technical and communication skills needed to work effectively in a team.


FOURTH YEAR

CSC479 PROJECT

Acad Unit:  10
Pre-requisite:   CSC379 

This major project offers students the scope to develop initiative, creativity and design ability. The work, carried out through two semesters, provides an opportunity to undertake design, analysis and implementation of a substantial project in any particular area of Computer Science. Projects may be based on staff research interests or industrial collaboration. Students are expected to document their work and report their findings in formal reports and give oral presentations at the conclusion of their projects.


FINAL YEAR ELECTIVES
(each subject is assigned 4AUs)

CSC401 ADVANCED ALGORITHMS 

Advanced Algorithm Analysis Techniques.  Computational Geometry.  Maximum Flow.  String Matching and other Bioinformatics related algorithms.  NP-completeness.  Search Techniques.   Randomized Algorithms.   Heuristic and Approximation Algorithms.

CSC402 ADVANCED COMPUTER NETWORKS  

Overview of basic concepts of computer networks. Principles of application layer protocols. Application layer protocols such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, Private networks. Best-effort service. Multimedia applications and QoS requirements. Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP).RTP, RTCP, RSVP. Integrated services. Differentiated services. Scheduling and traffic policing. TCP and UDP, in depth study of TCP congestion control. IPv6. Multicasting. Frame relay protocol and QoS. ATM and current status of ATM networks. Virtual LANs. Wireless networks: Architectures, MAC layer protocols (such as IEEE 802.11, Bluetooth). Routing and transport protocols. Application layer protocols (such as WAP).

CSC403 ADVANCED DATA MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Types of data (semi-structured, spatial, scientific, biodata, etc.). Storage and indexing techniques and issues. Query processing techniques. Data analysis and mining techniques.

CSC404 COMPILER TECHNIQUES 

Compiler structure. Lexical analysis. Regular expressions and finite automata. Context-free grammars. Syntax analysis. Parsing concepts and techniques. Compiler generation tools – LEX and YACC. Extending the parser through syntax-directed approach. Introducing compiler backend. Virtual machines. A complete compiler.

CSC405 COMPONENT-BASED COMPUTING 

Fundamentals: Definition & nature of components, components & interfaces, patterns, frameworks & architectures, benefits of components; Component Models & Platforms: object request broker (CORBA, CCM, OMA & MDA, etc.), Java component technologies (JavaBeans, EJB & J2EE, etc), the .NET framework (common language infrastructure, COM& DCOM, etc.); Component-based application development: component design and assembly, use of objects and object life cycle services, component-oriented design; Component architectures: the roles of an architecture, a tiered component architecture, components & middleware, component frameworks.

CSC406 COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE 

The elements of computer architecture.  Arithmetic logic unit.  Control unit.  Memory and storage Systems.   Instruction set processor architecture.   Pipelined processors.   System interconnections.   Parallel architectures.

CSC407 COMPUTER GAME PROGRAMMING 

History of computer/video game technology. Game genres and design principles. The social impact of games. Event loops and execution threads. Rendering and animation in 3D. Terrain/background representation. Polygonal models. Texturing. Collision detection. Physically-based modeling. Game AI. Multi-user games and networking.

CSC408 COMPUTER VISION & IMAGE PROCESSING 

Image formation and segmentation. Image acquisition. Image representations and organisations. Digital image characterisation. Image enhancement and restoration. Image coding and data compression. Geometry for 3D vision. Pattern recognition using neural networks. Image analysis and understanding. Machine vision applications.

CSC409 CRYPTOGRAPHY AND NETWORK SECURITY

Introduction: security mechanisms, security services, and ITU-T X.800 security architecture. Shared-key cryptographic algorithms and Kerberos. Public-key cryptographic algorithms and PKI Infrastructure. Security Protocols: PAP, CHAP, RADIUS, SSL/TLS. Security Tunnels and VPN: PPTP, L2F. L2TP and Ipsec. Perimeter Security Design: firewalls, SOCKS. Intrusion detection systems. Case Studies: security in Windows networking, WEP in 802.11 LAN. Internet banking.

CSC410 DIGITAL LIBRARIES

Concepts: Definition of digital library, components, collections. Organisation: Metadata, interoperability, standards. Collection management: development, creation, acquisition, linking, and distributed holdings of digital information resources. Access: Searching, access management. Management issues: Integration with traditional library resources, legal, ethical, social issues. licensing, subscriptions  Research projects in digital libraries & Digital Libraries Initiatives.

CSC411 DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING 

Introduction: Components of distributed systems, communication technologies, communication services. Distributed algorithms and protocols: examples of distributed algorithms, clock synchronization, logical and vector clocks, election algorithms, consensus algorithms, proof of correctness, complexity analysis. Distributed operating systems: system models, file services, name services, process synchronization and coordination, case studies. Distributed shared memory: algorithms for implementing DSM, coherence protocols. Distributed resource management: load sharing, load balancing, resource monitoring. Failure recovery and fault tolerance: check-pointing, recovery, fault-tolerant models and protocols. Research issues in distributed systems, real-time protocols, standardization issues, cluster and grid computing.

CSC412 FORMAL LANGUAGES, AUTOMATA AND COMPUTABILITY

Introduction to models of computation. Finitary representations. Uncountable numbers and diagonalization argument.  Example(s) of noncomputable problems.  Formal languages and Chomsky's grammars. 
Finite automata: DFA, NFA, regular expressions, regular grammars, and their equivalence. Properties of regular languages: pumping lemma for regular languages and its applications. Context free grammars: ambiguity, parsing.  Pushdown automata and context free languages (CFLs).  Deterministic CFLs and their applications.  Properties of CFLs:   pumping lemma for CFLs.
Turing machines: definition and construction for simple problems.   Church-Turing hypothesis and computabililty.  Nondeterministic turing machines and nondeterministic time complexity.

CSC413 FORMAL METHODS AND SPECIFICATIONS

The role of formal methods, approaches to formal specification, property oriented vs model oriented approaches. Algebraic specification: sorts, signatures, axioms, operations. Structured specifications. Model-based approach: Z specification language; comparison with VDM. Verification and proof techniques. Axiomatic method: axioms and inference rules, loop invariants, proof outlines, partial and total correctness. Predicate transformers and weakest pre-conditions.   Specification of concurrent systems. Algebraic specification: Lotos. Model-based specification: FSP/CSP. Proof of concurrent programs: monitor invariants and inference rules.

CSC414 GEOMETRIC MODELLING

Parametric curves and surfaces: bezier, B-spline, nurbs,  surfaces of revolution,  Swept surfaces, 2D  and  3D  "De Casteljau" algorithm.   Implicit surfaces:   algebraic  surfaces,  quadrics, superquadrics, blending, blending functions, skeletons, convolution surfaces. Subdivision surfaces. Normal vector calculation. Surfaces representation: polygonization, grids, octrees, points, CSG.

CSC415 INFORMATION RETRIEVAL

Use models: Document search, document clustering, automatic topic hierarchy generation, document classification. Performance evaluation: Precision versus recall, experiment design. Vector Space Model. Latent Semantic Indexing. Features: Word stemming, case folding, stop words, thesauri, N-grams. Relevance ranking: Cosine, IDF, link-based scoring. Implementation issues: Inverted indexes, dictionaries, parsing, compression.

CSC416 INTELLIGENT AGENTS

Overview: introduction, definitions, fundamental concepts, applications. Agent theories: commitments, intentions, decision-theoretic agents, Markov decision processes. Agent architectures: simple reactive agents, reactive planners, deliberative agents, layered architectures, cognitive agents, advanced architectures. Multi-agent systems: collaborative agents, agent teams. Agent languages and implementation. KQML, agent communication languages, learning agents, believable agents. Software agents: personal assistants, information access, robotic agents, agent applications.

CSC417 INTRODUCTORY BIOINFORMATICS

Basic bioinformatics concepts, databases, tools and applications. Introduction: cell biology's central dogma, biological technologies for collecting and storing genomic sequence data. Methods of computational biology. Genomic and proteomic resources: information networks, DNA sequence databases, cDNA libraries of expressed genes, Protein sequence and structure databases. Human Genome Project. Sequence and structure analysis tools: dynamic programming for sequence alignment, pairwise and multiple alignment techniques, Predication of RNA secondary structures, Homology modelling for 3D protein structure. Microarray technology, clustering and classification. Imaging and visualisation technologies.

CSC418 LINEAR PROGRAMMING  

Linear programming. The simplex algorithm. Duality. Gaussian elimination and matrices. Revised simplex. General LP problems. Sensitivity analysis. Connections with geometry. Case studies in efficient allocation of scarce resources. Scheduling production and inventory & game theory.

CSC419 MACHINE LEARNING 

Overview: introduction, definition, fundamental concepts, applications. Unsupervised learning: K-means, vector quantization, self-organizing neural networks. Supervised learning: K nearest neighbour, learning vector quantization, decision tree, supervised neural networks. Graphical models: belief networks, Bayesian networks, Hidden Markov models, incremental learning, reinforcement learning, machine learning applications

CSC420 WIRELESS NETWORKS AND MOBILE COMPUTING  

Foundation: introduction, history, physical and technological constraints, wireless communications, wireless networks, mobile networking, wireless protocols. Information management: data dissemination and broadcast models, mobile database and mobile transaction, location-Independent and location-dependent computing models, naming, locating, and routing, mobility and handoff, location awareness and environmental discovery, disconnected and weak-connected operation models: file hoarding and file systems. Mobile applications and services: Mobile Agents, transcoding and proxy architecture, wireless web and WAP. Human-computer interactions: reduced user interfaces, wearable and pervasive computing. Security:  authentication in mobile applications, privacy issues. Case study: satellite networks: satellite MAC, multicast over satellite, asymmetric routing, TCP over satellite, LEO constellation and LEO routing.

CSC421 NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING 

Overview: introduction, definitions, fundamental concepts, applications. Parsing methods:deterministic and stochastic grammars. Statistical NLP: parsing, term extraction, word sense disambiguation; Information extraction: rule-based approach, learning-based approach. Ontology: WordNet, XML, semantic web. Machine translation.

CSC422 NEURAL NETWORKS

Biological neural systems. Introduction to artificial neural networks. Supervised and unsupervised learning. Merits and limitations of neurocomputing. Perceptron as a linear classifier. Perceptron learning algorithms: ADALINE, MADALINE. Multi-layer perceptron. Generalized delta-rule. Backpropagation learning. Linear associated memory networks. Bidirectional memory. Recurrent networks. Hopfield networks. Stochastic neural networks. Boltzmann machine. Simulated annealing. Kohonen networks. Self-organizing feature maps. Adaptive resonance theory: ART1 architecture. Hybrid networks. Radial basis function networks. Counterpropagation networks. Fuzzy neural networks. Genetic algorithms. Hardware implementation of neural networks. Application of neural networks.

CSC423 PARALLEL PROCESSING 

Motivation for parallelism. Models of parallel computers: shared memory models, distributed memory models. Concepts of parallel programming: models and paradigms. Complexity measures: computation and communication. Parallel languages. Parallel program design. Partitioning: data partitioning, divide-and-conquer, pipelined computation, etc. Applications: sorting, matrix, numerical etc.

CSC424 ROBOTICS

Introduction to robotics. Forward and inverse kinematics. Motion kinematics. Low-level and High-level trajectory planning. Static force and torque relations. Internal sensory devices: position and velocity sensors. External sensory devices: force, tactile and proximity sensors, machine vision. Robot programming: multi-level approach, programming techniques, world modelling, off-line programming and simulation.

CSC425 SIMULATION AND MODELLING  

Introduction and basic simulation procedures. Different types of simulation models: Monte Carlo simulation, discrete-event simulation. Continuous system simulation. Mixed continuous/discrete-event simulation. Queuing networks: analytical and simulation modelling of queuing systems. Input and output analysis: random numbers, generating and analysing random numbers. Sample generation. Trace- and execution-driven simulation. Point and interval estimation.

CSC426 SOFTWARE TESTING

Testing context. Risk analysis. Basic object-oriented concepts. Testing analysis and design models. Testing classes. Testing State-based classes. Parallel architecture for component testing. Planning for component testing. Measuring the effectiveness of component testing. System testing. Organizing for testing.

CSC427 VISUALISATION 

3D Computer graphics. Visualisation pipeline. Graphical data representation. Visualisation algorithms and applications.

CSC428 SPECIAL TOPIC IN COMPUTER SCIENCE

This course may be run in any semester and the topics to be selected are taken from recent advances in Computer Science.

General Electives/General Education Requirement

HW110 Effective Communications )  
HW210 Technical Communications ) Please refer to School of Humanities & Social Sciences
HW310 Professional Communications )  

CPE183/CSC183 ENGINEERS AND SOCIETY

Acad Unit: 3
Pre-requisite: Nil

This course raises issues pertinent to engineers as professionals as well as members of society. It discusses the requirements and issues of the IT profession, examining the key role professionals play with their contributions to society. Current concerns will be raised of interest to any person living in Singapore.

CPE184/CSC184 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Acad Unit: 3
Pre-requisite: Nil

Nature of entrepreneurship and human resource management. Developing a new venture business plan. Business formation. Understanding individual behavior in organisation. Understanding group behavior in organisation. Leadership for change and innovation. Managing human assets and performance. Productivity and total quality management. Managing creativity and innovation. Labour-management relations.

 
 
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